Anthropology

Nancy Gill has been working for the American Postal office for almost 23 years but unlike other employees who can provide health benefits for their families, she cannot provide the same for her spouse because of one reason   she is married to a woman. Gill and her spouse, Marcelle Letourneau were married in Massachusetts in 2004 and now, they are challenging the federal law Defense of Marriage Act or DOMA that  defines marriage as a being between a man and a woman  (Seelye). The couple are backed up by Gay and Lesbian Advocates and Defenders together with 15 other couples who also complained about DOMA.
   
The same sex couples are fighting against DOMA because they claim that DOMA makes same sex marriage look very immoral.  Also, it gives a big burden on same sex  couples because  ended up hurting such couples by making them pay twice for health insurance, for example, or denying them death benefits  (Seelye). The Obama administration disagrees with DOMA but as of the moment, there is nothing drastic they can do about it because it is not unconstitutional. The issue here is not whether to allow same-sex marriage five states and the District of Columbia have allowed it but it does not change the fact that couples in same sex marriages are left out of the benefits that the typical heterosexual couple receives.
   
As one may notice, same sex marriages are not legal in all the parts of the United States. Only some states have approved of it and as of the moment, same sex marriages are not really prioritized by law as seen in the article. They are not given the same benefits as normal couples.  Anthropology is useful in the subject of same sex marriage because the study of anthropology has documented the development of same sex marriage from all over the world. For example, it is only in some societies that same sex marriage is allowed such as Spain, Canada, the Netherlands and Belgium (Haviland et al, 20).  Anthropology tells us that the development of same sex marriage is different depending on the society because  it is human societies that define the boundaries of social relationships  (20).
   
According to many feminist anthropologists, the reason why same sex marriage is not readily acceptable in the society of the United States is because the societys has allowed men to dictate on the womens sexuality and make rules for it (Lewin et al, 71). That kind of society is called patriarchal and in that society, men use sexuality as a tool to dominate and oppress women through sexual objectification (71). From the feminist perspective, sex, marriage and family were all tools used by men to limit women to heterosexuality and as a result, under the male power.
   
Anthropologists point out how males dominate the females in many aspects of culture and society. Examples of these are  arranged and child marriages, brideprice, foot-binding, purdah (the segregation of women from men typical in some Islam societies), veiling, the chastity belt, clitoridectomies, and female infanticide  (71-72).  Practices like these are made by society to make sure that women are always paired up with men.  That is how men dominate women in society through major and minor cultural and societal practices.
   
Given this information, it is not a surprise as to why same sex couples are having a hard time attaining rights that are equal to the typical heterosexual marriage or marriage to the opposite sex. As stated above, DOMA dictates that marriage is a union between a  man and a woman, not a union of two men or two women respectively. DOMA is a law created by the government, a patriarchal institution. The government patronizes heterosexual unions, which is a political institution in itself. Heterosexuality is a  political union that makes women less powerful  (71). Society goes by heterosexuality and dictates that women should always end up with men.
   
The fact that there are more women nowadays who are open to same sex marriages is a threat to the political institutions because women, after all, can have the freedom to choose whether or not they would like to marry and who they will marry. This fact is unacceptable to society because it does not agree with the rules of societal relations that have been established. If one goes back to history,  marriage in most cultures have always been known to be a union between a man and a woman. The union of two sexes is still highly unthinkable for many societies because in that union, most likely there is no more inequality between the two entities because they are of the same sex.
   
Same sex marriage may be accepted in some states but it does not mean that it is warmly accepted.  Life for same sex couples is still difficult because society sees it as a breaking away from the norms. Same sex unions are making progress in gaining acceptance but they still have a long way to go.  After all, we are still governed by a patriarchal society.

The setting of the video is in Africa.  It is hosted by the late Walter Cronkite, with appearances from many esteemed scientists from all over the world, and is about the history of man.  The video covers why early hominids began to walk upright and other ways in which early hominid species can be compared and contrasted to human beings.  The scientists explain that although humans have sacrificed in order to be able to walk upright, that it was worth the transformation.Walking upright has given man many more opporutunitites than walking on four legs had it has probably even kept them from exctinction.  Evolution works in mysterious ways, walking upright was one more way that nature made man the most advanced species in the world.
   
Homo erectus began about one million years ago.  They were the first to spread past Africa.  They were the most similar to human beings out of the other types of early hominids.  Human DNA can be traced back to a single early hominid female from Africa who lived around 200,000 years ago.  Humans are relatives of Homo erectus and not of Neanderthals.  Neanderthal DNA does not show a link to that of humans.  Neanderthals seem to have gone extinct while home erectus evolved into modern humans. 
   
They explain that some chimpanzee species evolved into what eventually became humans and some did not.  They claim that evolution doesnt think it just happens.  Under the right conditions, and through selection, early primates eventually became to what are now human beings.  The scientists claim that early hominid primates walked on two legs before the brain had a significant increase in size.  As the brain size increased, early hominid primates were able to perform tasks such as tool making. 

Bipedalism was one of the most significant changes in the evolution of human beings.  Early hominids lived near water in Africa they lived alongside the wildlife.  There were reasons in which they needed to be able to walk upright.  Lucy, an early hominid fossil that was found, is the species Australopithecus.  She was the first species that was known to walk on two legs.  Her fossil ages back to over 3 million years ago.  Unlike four legged primates, those that walk on two legs have more painful childbirths, back problems, knee problems, and other issues associated with the upright shape of the pelvis.  Although there were sacrifices that had to be made in order to be able to walk upright, four legged primates had to evolve to walk on two legs in order to survive.  Africa was drying up the early primates could no longer survive up in the trees.  They had to come down from the trees in order to change forests for food.  With the heat of the sun, and the increasing size of the desert, walking upright got them to the other forests quicker.  Chimpanzees that use four legs are not as quick when having to travel on the ground.  Four legs work great for living in trees, but not for having to cross the desert.  Therefore, as the forests shrunk, they had to evolve to walk upright.
   
I am not surprised by their behavior because animals evolve in order to survive in their surroundings.  If they do not evolve, then they may not survive.  With this in mind, early hominids had to learn to walk upright in order to move quicker across the land in order to find food and escape predators.

All in the Mind
This video covers the differences between the brains of humans and other primate species.  It is hosted by the late Walter Cronkite, with appearances from many esteemed scientists from all over the world.  They explain how over millions of years, the brains of early primates and hominids have evolved, gotten bigger, and more complex.  The complexity of the human brain, as well as its size, allows humans to be able to associate with each other in ways that no other primates can.  Evolution has helped hominids by enlarging the size of their brain with each new species.  The increase in brain size has allowed man to be the most advanced species in the world.

Humans think that they are unique, and they are.  They think that they are superior beings, and they are.  They have a bigger and better brain than any other primate.  The brain is responsible for everything and anything that makes a human, human.  The main difference between the brain of humans and of other primates is a human s ability to acquire a language.  The process of educating restructures the brain.  The bigger and more advanced the brain became, the better primates became at communicating.  Language is needed to transmit culture to the offspring humans can transmit many ideas to their offspring due to their advanced languages.  Within a human brain, there is the ability to create, use, and understand language.
   
Early hominids, just as other primates, communicate through cries and other call noises.  These noises are not able to communicate ideas as complex as those communicated between humans.  The need for food, or the threat of a predator, are two common ideas that would have been exchanged between early hominids.   They could not have been able to discuss complex ideas such as what happens after you die or even if there is a higher power.  Ideas that were communicated had to be simple due to their inability to produce and understand a complex language. 

Human speech allows them to transmit data 3-5 times faster than it could be transmitted without speech.  No only is the exchange of ideas transmitted faster due to advanced speech and increased brain size but it also shows that humans do have freewill.  Humans are able to modify their behavior, and make their own decisions.  Humans have more control over their animal instincts than other primates do. 
   
After watching this video, you can not only have faith that humans are the most advanced species but you can also back up that faith with fact.  Humans are, indeed, the most advanced.  I am not surprised by the facts presented in this video because I was already aware that the human species is the most advanced due to their advanced brain.

Durkheim tells that social facts means nothing but sociological data. These facts are normal ways of thoughts and acting each member of society feels forced to conform. In these facts personal qualities of individuals are irrelevant. These facts belong to the whole of thoughts, sentiments and actions these cannot be reduced for the individuals in whose behavior they manifest themselves. In terms of individual psychology, collective believes and behavior cant be explained by some tokens. Durkheim states that individuals want new social psychology, for only the social can explain the social.  

Durkheim persist that to understand on set of social phenomena, kinship and marriage are to be understood in field of economics, religion etc. This is the essence of functionalism. The above aspect of the work of French sociologist created the origin of the British social anthropologists. Thus, with the coming of structural-functional school in Great Britain. In the real sense of development modern social anthropology was emerged. At this time, students of Malinowski and Radeliffe-Brown have provided new types of data. By the observed field data, Malinowski and Radeliffe-Brown gave new guidelines to anthropology influenced by Emile Durkheim (Srivastava, 2005).        
  
Functionalism theory was developed by Bronislaw Malinowski who was influenced by Durkheim. Emile Durkheim says in his sociology as society is a unit and there is a necessity of perpetuation of society in itself. Malinowski theory of functionalism was developed based on Durkheims sociology. Malinowski treated Durkheimian as origin of his theory with the difference of cultural aspects in his method. Durkheim expanded his theory from the top down that means he discuss about social aspects first and the features of psychological are discussed after that and more part of that theory integrated with social facts. Though Malinowski developed the theory based on Durkheims theory, his theory is bottom up and elaborated from the psychological aspects to cultural aspects (Worsfold).
  
The functionalism of Malinowski was very much synchronization with sociological theory of Durkheim. Durkheim together with some other authors such as Hubert, Mauss and often Malinowski writes LAnnee Sociologique and it was buildup with some imperative theoretical and methodological aspects of functionalism. The writings of Malinowski were unequivocally influenced by Durkheim. Malinowski says Durkheim for one-sided arguments, metaphysical bias and an idealistic vision of social reality. But Malinowski saw Durkheim as the organizer of French Sociology and anthropology. Durkheims main context was the cultural phenomena. So it was more important to cultural aspects of Malinowski and Malinowski said the full scientific understanding of culture as a specific phenomenon. Malinowski still accepted the Methodological hypothesizes of Durkheim were very vital involvement in the improvement of social anthropology. Through the opinions and proceedings of Durkheim to sociological objects was balanced with the exertions of Malinowski (Ellen 1988).
  
Marcel Mauss was the nephew and also student of Durkheim. He was developed sociology together with Durkheim. The inquiry of anthropology disturbed with the materials of social amalgamation tumble down from the activities of Durkheim who was the educator and French sociologist. This was passed from Durkheim to his student Mauss. Durkheim and Marcel Mauss are in the same way of sociology. But Mauss never wrote any book regarding to the subject of religion like Durkheims attempt in The elementary forms (James, Mauss  Allen, 1998).

A)THE RISE OF COMPLEX CIVILIZATION IN EGYPT
The rise of the ancient Egyptian civilization can be attributed to the seasonal flooding of the Nile river. At a certain time each year the Nile river rises flooding the agricultural plains of the ancient Egyptians. After the waters recede what is left behind is a rich mud filled with nutrients ideal for growing crops. Combined with their knowledge of agriculture and the creation of water ways for irrigation the Egyptians were able to have a thriving agricultural economy which other civilizations at the time were unable to rival due to possession of the Egyptians of the Nile river basins which fertilized their fields naturally. It was due to this that the ancient Egyptians were able support an expansion of their civilization and had enough resources and supplies to conquer other territories.

B)THE RISE OF COMPLEX CIVILIZATION IN MESOPOTEMIA
was one of the areas where writing was first invented
The situation of the ancient Mesopotamian civilizations along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers was instrumental in the prosperity of the numerous cities present. The rivers provided a rich source of water for agriculture as well as fish and clay for building buildings. Not only that but the placement of the numerous cities along the banks of the river made it an ideal location for trade and travel which made it a major trading hub for numerous suppliers and traders. The region was also known for being one of the first areas where writing was invented as such they were able to keep accurate records and written works which enabled the civilization to flourish intellectually as well as culturally.

C)THE RISE OF COMPLEX CIVILIZATION IN INDUS
The civilization of Indus can be considered one of the most advanced civilizations at the height of its power. They were able to develop advanced techniques of metallurgy and were able to produce copper, bronze, lead and tin which resulted in a great diversity in the types of jewelry they wore, their instruments for carving and construction not to mention their art which resembles materials used today. Just as the ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations were situated near river banks the ancient Indus civilization was also situated near a river bank which helped in the production of agricultural products and a flourishing trade industry.

D)DISCUSS THE RISE OF MAYA CIVILIZATION IN MESOAMERICA.
The Mesoamerica civilization which was in existence 6000 BCE was one of the most advanced civilizations in South America at the time. They didnt situate theyre civilizations right next to rivers rather they were situated either in highlands and lowlands relying on a small agricultural industry for subsistence and had a hunter gatherer culture. They are famous for their stone cutting and building skills which resulted in some of the most advanced stone made structures to date and developed their own calendar system based on the placement of the stars, sun and seasons.

E)COMPARE AND CONTRAST BETWEEN CIVILIZATION MESOAMERICA AND EGYPT
While both civilizations had advanced stone working skills the Egyptian civilization with its more advanced agricultural industry brought about by the yearly flooding of the Nile river could be considered a more advanced civilization for not only did they possess a better agricultural system they were a sea faring civilization with extensive trade routes which took advantage of their placement near the Nile river. The ancient Mesoamerica civilization did not possess such advantages and had to rely on animal transport to ferry goods for trade due to their locations being varied from either the highlands or lowlands.

Neanderthal valley was a small valley (about 700metres long) of river Dssel in the German country of European continent. The valley was named in memory of a German Calvinist, poet and teacher, Joachim Neander who lived between 1650 and 1680 and wrote his hymns as he walked through the valley (Jestice 2009 2). Archaeological archives of the 19th century indicate that before the 1850s the Neander valley was composed of cave shelters of different sizes.

In August of 1856, at the Feldhofer cave shelter of Neander valley, near the city of Dsseldorf some bones (thought to belong to a cave bear) were discovered by quarry workers amidst the lime quarry they were working on. The bones were given to a local school teacher Johann Karl Fuhlrott (1803-1877) who doubled up as an amateur naturalist.   After a thorough examination and consultation with anatomist Hermann Scaaffhausen (1816-1893), they confirmed they were the bones of ac archaic human being. In 1857 Fuhlrott and Scaaffhausen announced their discovery (Jestice 2009 3). Three weeks after the discovery Fuhrott went to investigate the site but the remaining material was buried deep in the clay. He however managed to collects some bone materials which included two femora, a skull cap and part of the ilium, some rib fragments, three right arm bones and two left arm bones.

This discovery is considered to be the beginning of paleoanthropology (a scientific discipline dealing with the study of human evolution). Fuhrott indicated that, since the bones were not considered important at the time of discovery, (Jestice, 2009) no great care was taken during the quarrying process and the labourers (at his request) only collected large bones that could be easily identified.

Feldhofer cave, as the valley was initially known, was in a limestone gorge and measured approximately 3 metres in height by 3 metres in width by 5 metres in length an had an approximately 1 metre long opening 20 metres from the floor of the valley. The cave was later destroyed by extensive quarrying which broadened the valley without any geological or scientific analysis. According to Schmitz by the year 1900, the position of the valley was forgotten (2000162).

The discovery and the publishing of Darwins origin of Species theory three years later opened the debate on the validity of the existence of early man and species relation (Schmitz 2000111). The authenticity of the Neanderthal bones was later disputed by a German scientist Virchow Rudolf (1821-1902). Through craniometry (scientific method of measuring human bones) he concluded they were the bones of a normal human being who had suffered rickets in childhood and arthritis in their adult life and had probably crawled into the cave to die (Jestice 2009 6). He explained the deep facial brow to be a result of farrowing due to pain and powerful blows on the head.

Subsequent investigations have confirmed the Neanderthal bones to be of ancient man, the Neanderthal man, named after the valley where the bones were dug from. Jestice indicates that William king (1809- 1886) an English geologist was the first to propose the Neanderthal material belonged to a different ancient human being previously unknown to humans he was the first to use the term Homo Neanderthalensis (20097).  Following the discovery at least 62 more Neanderthal samples have been unearthed and are believed to belong to three distinct Neanderthal individuals.

Subsequent excavations
The Neanderthal valley discovery brought about the debate of whether the Neanderthal man played any role in the evolution history.  Scientists and archaeologists agreed that subsequent excavations of the Feldhofer caves were necessary. Although it had been largely thought that the remaining pieces of the Neanderthal man from the Neander cave were dumped nearby, attempts to determine the exact location were unfruitful for almost one century. In 1997 archaeologists Schmits and Jrgen Thissen, through careful archival examination were able to determine the probable site of these remains and excavations commenced (Moravsk 2004 293). The excavations were conducted by Rheinisches Amt fr under the supervision of Schmitz and Jrgen. It was discovered that the southern part of the valley was still intact and cave residues were positioned adjacent to this remains. Proper excavations and examinations yielded some Pleistocene faunal remnants, Paleolithic artefacts and 24 pieces of human bone from the clay residues of the cave (Moravsk 2004 323). Confirmations that these bone fragments belonged to Neanderthal valley remains was when one piece was fitted perfectly on the left lateral femoral condyle. Additional excavations in the year 2000 yielded much larger skeletal fragments, artifacts and a series of fauna (Jestice 20095). Two cranial pieces were found to fit the original Neanderthal calotte exactly.

Findings
The excavations of 1997 and 2000 yielded greatly fragmented bones than those found in 1856 which is thought to be caused by the shattering when they were thrown down the cave (Jestice 2009 65). The fragments have been refitted to form more complete elements. Debate is still on whether the bones belong to the Neanderthal man. Six teeth and seven skull fragments have been identified but none resembles the preserved fragments of Neanderthal 1.Two cranial fragments and a fragment of the right temporal bone perfectly fit the skeletal outline of Neanderthal 1. The cranial fragment exhibited some distinct Neanderthal features which included, a slanting zygomaticoalveolar periphery, noticeably distended maxillary sinuses, marked muscle attachment for the temporalis muscles, features that are distinct to Neanderthal 1.
It was found that their molars and premolars resembled those of modern man and their chewing muscles and cheek region were shrunk. According to Schmitz (200038) their enlarged canine and incisor teeth indicated continued use as a third hand.

Significance of the Findings
Bones found in the valley have been estimated to be 40,000 and 50,000 years old. Investigations of the archaeological materials found at the site, describes the Neanderthals as having brains that were 10 larger than that of the modern man. They were about 1.6m tall and of short robust build with thick noses for warming the cold air during the ice age period (Jestice 2009 52) and reduced skin surface. Their thick build is thought to be a result of carrying heavy loads with less or no strain. They had thick skulls with prominent brows and a longer occipital bun protruding towards the end. It has also been discovered that they communicated by use of speech, courtesy of the hyoid bones that was excavated at the Neanderthal valley (Schmitz 2000 195). Anthropologists have linked the unique facial structures of the Neanderthals to be a result of evolution which slowly reshapes human morphology. Questionable studies have concluded that the Neanderthals used to burry their dead and in some cases laying flowers on the graves (suggesting religion). Some skeletal bones with signs of injury also suggest the Neanderthals cared for their sick suggestion a strong social cohesion.

Their large brains suggest they lived in a cold climate probably Northern Europe. They covered their bodies with animal skin. Archaeologists suggest the wearing out of their teeth to be a result of constant use to soften the animal skins. Neanderthal had the knowledge of fire and sat around it in their cave shelters for warmth. Numerous fracture found on the Neanderthal bones suggests they lived rough lives. From their archaeological records it is inferred that the Neanderthals lived in small groups, they were migratory but oftenly returned to their original shelters. This has been deduced from the size of their shelters which are small and the deepness of the remains at the site. Some of the tools they used included simple wood spears, broad flakes and some chipped stone tools (Jestice 200952).

The presence of paleolithic tools at the Neander valley together with genetic analysis and carbon dating of human bone fragments found at the area, establishes a near complete context of Neanderthal 1. The overall image indicates that they shared a number of characteristics with the modern man their foraging characteristics were however more primitive compared to those of a modern hunter gatherer necessitating stronger muscles.

Studies are still underway to determine the cause of their extinction and the rise of Homo sapiens as the dominant humans. Though it is not clear whether the issue is genetic or anthropological. Fossils indicate modern man evolution and spread, displaced and absorbed the Neanderthals. Subsequently their absorption made a significant genetic contribution to modern humans which are evident from the similarities found in their DNA. According to DNA sequencing the Neanderthals are the only anatomically closely related relative to modern man. It would therefore be correct to conclude that the Neanderthal was a real human and a product of his own environment. It was the spread of modern man that replaced their archaic features which were outdated by more sophisticated cultural behaviour and technologies.

Linguistic anthropology is defined as an interdisciplinary field dedicated to the study of language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice (Duranti, 2001) or investigate the relationship between communication and culture (Sociology and Anthropology Website, 2010). It is also the study the role language plays in culturally patterned behavior (Stanton, 2000). This branch of anthropology utilizes detailed documentation of peoples communicative interaction with each other in any social activity. It also focuses on subjective research through oral interviews, recorded transcription and active participation of the subjects. It has garnered interest from the academic field as more studies had been made with credible sources and maintaining the emphasis on systematic and empirical research. Language and culture are the key factors in the linguistic anthropology it was often pointed out with linguists that children learn the language along with their societys culture at the same time. Grammar, syntax, accent, dialects often arrived with surprising results. This branch of study often concludes the identity of the speakers how they speak, why certain accents are received with prejudice or acceptance, etc.

Having a linguist working with me, specializing in Political Science would be a very interesting and intellectual camaraderie. Culture is one of the significant factors in the Political Science field its study is usually of game play of power and how to apply such influence on people. Linguistic anthropologys methodology is also similar to that of Political Science. Interaction is necessary to achieve favor from the public masses whether for political campaigns or public relations within the government. Understanding different kinds of languages, even dialects, actually helped tremendously in comprehending the other parties identity in Society. Political Science is a study of power play and therefore must utilize soft power as much as possible to avoid damages in ones society. Positive reinforcement to the different kinds of people, whether they are natives or foreigners, elite or poor, and men or women, would be impossible without understanding the language structure of the said subjects (Duranti, 2001).

The article thoroughly discusses the theories that guide the Ifaluk in describing and explaining human nature in terms of behavior, consciousness, differences and similarities of their concepts of self and others. The author broadly describes how the Ifaluk speak of themselves as persons who are relatively undivided internally and socially. The Ifaluk can, according to the author, be described further as having an emotional mind that understands evens in a way that is simultaneously cognitive and affective.
   
What I find most interesting is the authors discussion on personhood in the context of the Ifaluks belief of the undivided self and how they define the boundaries between self and other. The strong emphasis given by the Ifaluk on perceived and desired similarities between self and other, as described by the author, seems to challenge the definition of individuality in Western culture. I find this worthy of further discussion because the notion of inclusivity in several aspects of discourse in their culture (the frequent use of the pronouns we and our rather than I and my) is similarly of strong contrast to our culture of individuality where we are freely able to talk about ourselves separate from other people.
   
The concepts of thoughtemotion (nunuwan) and willemotiondesire (tip) in Ifaluk culture intrigued me most as these concepts were described as being both similar and different. The author describes the two as difficult to distinguish from one another as they are often seen as describing aspects of the same phenomenon. I find these concepts problematic because they can easily encompass or, in certain instances, negate each other depending on the context in which they are used.
   
I find that the use of ethnopsychology as the domain of study in the article as appropriate. It was able to clearly demonstrate the interconnections of the concepts of self and others, as well as of thought and emotion in the context of the cultural construction as well as human nature of the Ifaluk.

Model minority   This may be defined as the minority of a racial or ethnic group which has received a higher degree of success as compared to the general average of population. Asian American diversity  Asian American diversity refers to the diverse backgrounds of Asians who have become American over the years such as Chinese Americans, Filipinos, Indians, and Vietnamese etc.Hmong people  Asian ethnic group from the mountainous regions of Burma, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam are referred to as Hmong people. Multi-generational households  Any household spanning three or more generations may be called a multi-generational household. This concept becomes important in the racial context as more the number of generations, greater different racial backgrounds are likely to be found in the same family.Treaty of Hidalgo (1848)  This is the peace treaty dictated by the USA to an interim military occupied Mexico which had sought to take large lands in Central America from the Native Americans. The treaty is an apt illustration of differing bargaining powers of different races.Racialization of ethnic difference (Rwanda)  The phenomenon that was observed in Rwanda when differences between ethnic groups were attributed to race is called racialization of ethnic difference.

Diminished antagonism  It is referred to as the proposition which states that the outcome of class struggle mollifies the opposition of interests and frequently coordinates the interests of capital and labor. Proposition 187  Proposition 187 in state of California was largely aimed at the huge undocumented Latin population of the state who were illegal immigrants and therefore not given the right to vote. However, the proposition being entirely based on racial reasons was challenged in the court of law and quashed by it labeling it as unconstitutional.Hypodescent  Societies where some races are considered superior and dominant while others inferior, it is the phenomenon where the children of mixed races are handed over to families of inferior races.

Hamitic Myth  This myth suggested that the Hamite race which became a sub-group of Caucasian race was superior to or more advanced than Negroid of sub-Saharan Africa.Racial democracy  It is the phenomenon of Brazil, as per which Brazil has managed to escape the racism and racial discrimination of other countries, especially USA.Repatriation program  It may be referred to as any initiative of a government to force migration of a certain race out of the country such as the Mexican Repatriation.De jure  Any matter as per the law and not fact is called de jure. These matters are usually those which are equal for all races, as there is an effort not to make laws discriminatory solely on the basis of racial differences.Coercive sterilization 

These are those initiatives of the government where people are forced to undergo surgical sterilization.De facto  Any matter as per the fact and not law is called de facto. These matters are not usually race neutral, as these are those which exist in reality and are factual. Thus, while law on a particular matter may provide for racial equality, factually and practically discrimination on basis of race can be often seen.Group position (Mexican difference)  It may be referred to the position taken by a number of participants who have a certain commonality. Morenidade  It is used mainly in Brazil to refer to the brown-skinned women. Race studies have been criticized for using skin-color specific terms.California vagrancy laws 

These are those Californian laws which are designed to punish those who are immoral or dangerous by their nature such as separate housing etc. These laws had their roots in England and were later used by many other jurisdictions as well. These laws have often been accused of fostering a different kind of racial discrimination.Blanqueamento  It is an ideology as well as a social practice. It is one of the common forms of racism in USA, which believes in white races being superior over non white races.Critical whiteness studies

This is a sub-study of critical race theory which seeks to examine the construction and moral implications of whiteness.White privilege  It is a way of conceptualizing racial inequalities that focuses as much on the advantages that white people get over other color skinned people due to their skin color.White invisibility  This is the proposition which stipulates that to be white is to be like everyone else and no discrimination can be justified on the basis of skin color.

Society has always looked for a way to honor its dead.  This has been the case since the earliest of times.  There are rituals in all populations that mark the various passages each travel through in life.  For instance, we mark an individuals accomplishments in graduating from college, or getting married.  It is no different in death.  Death is the final passage that civilizations throughout history have found ways to honor.   
   
Burials and the ceremonies that commemorate them, offer the survivors an opportunity to pay homage to the life that has been lost.  It gives them a chance to celebrate the deceased for accomplishments, life and family.  The burial ceremony allows the survivors a chance to mourn, and express their grief to others.  The ceremony helps those left behind to heal from the pain of the loss.
   
From the early civilizations to the present, burial rituals have told us a great deal about the social behavior of the population.  In most cases, children and elderly were buried just the same as the younger, stronger male.  That tells us that the population valued its people and grieved their loss.
   
In the middle and late Iron Age, burial practices reflected a diverse community.  In the area that is now Britain, an individual was buried in two separate areas.  For instance, there are areas where single bones are buried, as well as locations where the rest of the body is found. During the Iron Age, the breaking down of the human body indicated ritual activities.  This was done at death or shortly after with the use of excarnation.  Excarnation is allowing the body to be exposed until it reaches the skeleton stage.  At that point, the cranium is usually first to separate from the body, followed by the feet and hands.  This process will usually involve the chopping of skin, or soft tissue (Redfern, 2008).
   
Once body parts are separated, the secondary burial can be completed.  The body processing also included breaking bones to remove joint cartilage.  Archeologists have noticed that the bones found in secondary sites usually have cut marks, and fractures (Redfern, 2008).
   
The Neanderthal was different in its method of dealing with the dead.  In fact, the Neanderthal buried its dead in a painstaking ritual that occurred in stages with the consumption of the deceased persons body parts.  Nevertheless, the Neanderthal left gifts on the graves of those who died.  Statistics indicate that 40 percent of the graves that archeologists have examined have been of the very old or very young.  That fact indicates that the civilization valued both its elderly and children (Friedermann, Muller, Hemm, 2008).
  
The burial practices of the pre-pottery Neolithic civilization found individuals buried in shallow graves.  Some graves contained only one person while others contained many.  Archeologists discovered 21 artifacts related to 15 graves in Atlit-Yam, on the Northern coast of Israel.  Most of the items were tools, axes, and other household items.  The graves at this site were simple.  There were a few secondary burial sites, as some skulls were detached from the body.  The burial site was covered with lime plaster on its surface (Galili, Eshed, Goher, Hershkovitz, 2005).
   
In the third millennium burial practices in the Oman peninsula feature tombs circular in shape with un-worked stone that had a single ring around it.  The tomb had between two and ten chambers within it.  One tomb at the site of Unar 1 was large enough to hold the bodies of 438 people.  A smaller tomb found at Unn an-Nar Island only held between 34-48 individuals.  Inside of the tombs, archeologists found ceramics, soft-stone objects, bronze, beads and shells.  These items and burial method indicates a collective manner of living.  There were some cremations discovered in this period as well (Blau, 2001).
   
A burial cave found in the Aleutian Islands dated back to 390 BD. gives a glimpse into the function of the society.  Inside the cave were found hearths and work places.  Human bones had arranged stones around them.  There was an additional stone arrangement at the back of the cave.  In front of the cave, in the habitation area, animal bones and artifacts were found.  The bodies were in a sarcophagus in wood or stone coffins.  There is some discussion among scholars that cave burials may have been just for the better off (West, Lefevre, Corbett, Crockford, 2003).
   
Burial rites in Sophocles Athens featured the use of tombs more than cemeteries.  The tombs are found along roads or at passageways or gates.  Antigone believed that all people are entitled to burial.  The words tumbos and herion mean mounds of the land that cover the deceased and mark where the individual is buried.  The word, taphos means the tomb.  The grave or tomb generally was located in a public location.  The idea that the dead should be separated in some way from those living is not a part of the Greek culture.  However, late 5th century walls have been found that divide up tombs from one family to another.  Monuments always face the street or public square. The Romans of the same era prohibited the burial of any individual within the city. (Patterson, 2006).
   
Murders in this era were executed for their crime.  After execution, they were stoned and thrown out of the city without being buried.  Suicide victims were buried but not provided a headstone. People of good standing were given ceremonies that featured songs.  Then they were placed in a decorated tomb (Patterson, 2006).
   
Heroes and those killed in battle were given a public funeral with games, oration, and sacrifices.  Solon devised the rules for burial in Athens.  He said the deceased should be laid out within his home.  The next day, he would be carried out of the house on the board he was laying on.  When they carry the dead out, men will walk in the front of the procession.  Women walk behind.  In addition, no woman under age 60 could enter the chamber of the dead, or the tomb. (Patterson, 2006).  This is quite different from the days of Jesus where women were in charge of caring for the dead.
   
In Medieval times there is a diverse burial rite found in the use of boats with regional and temporal variations found.  The Sutton Hoo Mound is a large ship-type grave.  Most of the boats used were dugout logboats.  Some of the civilizations used boat timbers or boat parts to cover the grave area (Brooks, 2007).
   
Scandinavia is well-known for its adoption of burial by boat.  The Swedes and Norwegians practiced boat cremations however, such is rare in Anglo-Saxon areas.  The exception to this is the site at Sutton Hoo Mount three.  At that site there is a tree-trunk made like a coffin that was used for cremation (Brooks, 2007).
   
By the time the 18th century came around, most people in England were buried in unmarked graves in a churchyard.  The ground was consecrated and the service was performed by an Anglican clergyman.  He used the book, Book of Common Prayers for the service.  In 1689, however, the idea of personalized funerals and pre-planned ceremonies came into being.  The more affluent bought coffins.  This lead to the development of the undertaker profession (Gitting, 2007).
   
The very affluent built themselves a mausoleum on their land.  The most famous ceremony was for John Knill, the mayor of St. Ives.  He established a trust and asked that a ceremony be performed every five years.  The ritual featured ten girls, who were under the age of ten.  It also featured two widows, the vicar, and mayor and customs officer.  All paraded to the mausoleum on top of a hill.  The ceremony featured dancing, and singing, Old Hundredth, All people that on earth do dwell (Gitting, 2007).  Ironically, the ceremony was last completed in 2006.
   
After the American Civil War, the ideal of embalming became popular.  Prior to this Americans relied on the European methods establish for the preservation of the body.  The use of embalming gave family a chance to look at the person one last time and accept his or her death.  Embalming was used after Lincolns death to allow him to lie in state for individuals to witness, (Funeral Industry, n.d.)
   
In conclusion, burial rites of differing civilizations tell us a story of how the people lived, as well as how they died.  It explains their values, and speaks to the kind of society they lived within.  For example, south of Cairo a 5,000 year old tomb was discovered.  Inside of the tomb archeologists found the bones of 10 donkeys. (Burial Site, 2008). This indicates the value this civilization placed on the role of the animals.
   
Therefore, burial rites explain much about ancient civilizations, but also tell us a great deal about ourselves.  Although the rituals may have changed, the overall purpose is the same and that is to honor the dead.

Supports that bipedalism was more efficient compared to quadripedalism for long distance terrestrial locomotion. This type of locomotion was favored by the scarcity of resources caused by the drying of African forests in the Miocene. In this case evolution to bipedalism is based on the principles of behavioral ecology of extant primates. Every day travel or movement is not only subject to resource scarcity but also heavily dependent on the group size brought about by intergroup scramble competition (Hunt, 26).  The drying of the Miocene had triggered the evolution of more energetically efficient locomotion patterns or smaller group sizes. The latter strategys implication is that smaller groups are less favored in comparison to larger groups as far as intergroup competition is concerned (smaller groups are supplanted from limiting resources). Therefore, the earliest hominoids (human beings) must have adopted bipedalism to favor them over small group sizes, an energetic response mechanism to match the increasing resource scarcity. As an alternative, humans would have maintained their quadripedal pattern with slight evolution to fission-fusion grouping in order to minimize their daily travel as well as their energetic costs.

This strategy must have been adopted as a result of inherent differences in feeding ecology between the two closely related hominoids, humans and chimpanzees. This was the potential factor that resulted in speciation process which led to modern humans.  This environmental change, expansion of open grassland and the disappearance of forest was the underlying cause of bipedalism. Due to increasing resource scarcity the following consequences were faced by humans (1) there was a reduction in food density within closed forest, (2) the distance between forest patches increased and (3) there was extensive increase in savanna habitat.
  
The fact that humans are primates meant that they are subject food competition utilizing both scramble and contest competitions. In such competitions, humans would gain access to food via overt (the threat of aggression). In scramble competition, food access relies on the numbers of others nearby that consume the same food thereby depleting its availability (Stanley, 634). An increase in the number of conspecifics in resource sharing implies a reduction in food availability for each individual. In group living primates i.e humans, contest competition often occur both between and within groups, this competition can be expressed as the degree of aggression among groups. On the other hand, intra group competition is highly dependent on strong dominance hierarchies.   

Owing to the fact that success in aggressive encounters is highly dependent on the group size of the competing species, intergroup contest competition acted as the selective force affecting group size. Furthermore, intergroup scramble completion between humans and other closely related species (chimpanzees) depended on the home range size coupled with changes in group size (Isaac, 29). Humans had long home ranges compared to other primates. The home range size is determined by the abundance or the density food. With the increase in group size and the expansion of home ranges into other groups, the number of animals sharing resources in such overlaps increases and hence the availability of food to other groups decreases. These patterns required that humans adopted bipedalism so as to be advantageous over other competing species such as chimpanzees.
  
As the forests became drier, they were thinned from within causing the death of more species and thus reducing at their peripheries. In the absence of forest reduction, availability of resources reduced with regional drying and this required that groups of given sizes travelled farther to harvest the same quantity of food.  Humans, as frugivorous hominoids living in groups, acquired two strategies available to match the increasing food scarcity (Diamond, 34). Faster locomotion, they adopted bipedalism thus gaining advantage over smaller groups in this intergroup competition for food. Bipedalism meant that humans increased their day length even without changing their group sizes in this era of food limitation. Under such circumstances, humans were favored by selection since they had minimized their energetic costs of daily movement while at the same time maintaining their larger groups without unfair competitions.
  
The habitual bipedalism was efficient in energy conservation while travelling terrestrially over long ranges. Increased efficiency of bipedal locomotion not only enabled greater daily travels relative to group sizes but also facilitated the evolution of larger body sizes. By living in small groups, humans would thrive on smaller patches which were less available to larger groups (Tanner, 15). The use of bipedalism mechanism enabled humans to travel alone or when favored by food distribution, in small foraging parties thus minimizing potential costs incurred by humans in solitary living. The new posture introduced by bipedalism mechanism in humans made terrestrial foraging at higher levels of vegetation more efficient but less efficient at the ground levels. Due to the fact that initial location on an adaptive landscape resulted in divergent trajectories, similar but defined niches predisposed humans to solve their problems differently.  This means that if humans fed on resources which could be acquired by smaller groups such as chimpanzees, they became less likely to suffer the costs of living alone. In such case, the response to the drying of the Miocene would be to reduce their group size other than adopt bipedalism.
  
In addition to the bipedal stance, humans would gain wider view of their surrounding and early spotting of enemies during their food gathering expeditions. In the terrestrial travels bipedalism would aid faster cooling while in the open thus increasing their chances of survival and adaptability more than their quadripedal food competitors who would suffer the intense heat due to their distance from the ground (Gutirrez, 47). Bipedalism increased the distance of the human body from the ground surface and thus reduced the amount of radiation from the ground. In a bipedal stance, only the shoulders and head are exposed to direct sunlight which is a slightly smaller are exposed compared to other primates in the quadripedal stance. This adaptation was very vital since it offered an impulsive for both transition to the savannah and an immediate reward (food gains) for covering the ever increasing expansion in areas of the changing environment.
  
Because of effective cooling effects, humans would have a competitive advantage over other primates within the competing cycles since in the bipedal stance they spend less energy in comparison to the quadripedals. Reduced energy loss also meant that humans became less vulnerable to enemies during the food hunt since they would easily escape. Nevertheless, this posture increased subsistence capabilities of humans at the height of food limitations by providing much freedom for hands in accommodating other activities s such as making tools for effective food hunting among competitors (Stanley, 642). In the savannah, humans needed to be more vigilant over tall grass in order to adapt in its sultry condition, it thus offered a means of adjusting to these conditions through standing upright and thus less exposure to sunlight.
    
Therefore, bipedalism was developed by humans so as to provide safety in the terrestrial forest floor and on the more open terrain. In the human species, males were charged with the responsibility of long range hunting for food as the females were restricted to short range hunting and caring for infants. This called for the males to free their hands for carrying food on a wider foraging range. In this sense, the females would spend less energy caring for the young while the males covered long distances gathering food (Tanner, 12). This increased the survival of the infants and the general human species in the food competition environment.
  
 In the bipedal stance, human eyes face forward giving them orbital convergence which improves the depth of perception in the terrestrial environment. This gave humans an added advantage when reaching and grasping for food objects in this environment. This improved vision not only enabled humans to find small fruits and capture insects but also the ability to aim at small, hard to spot branches during mid-leaps through trees.
  
As far as food competition was concerned, the bipedalism stance introduced squat feeding which enabled humans to lessen the weight bearing abilities of the arms, under such situations the quadripedal mechanism would be less efficient than upright walking.  The squat feeding mechanism pre-adapted humans for bipedalism and hence solving many of the problems associated with quadripedal stance with regard to efficiency. The adoption of bipedalism helped in merging the terrestrial environmental changes of widening food patches as well as human consumption of meat which served as an impetus for bipedalism (Isaac, 29).
  
With declining rainfall and increased seasonality levels, which led to clear forests instead of denser ones, this changed food distribution and called for increased efficiency associated with bipedalism of moving around the greater distances between food points. Efficient bipedalism would allow humans to spend more time in search for food than their cousin apes in the quadripedal mode. This meant that humans would not suffer greater inter group food scramble competitions since they would not be required to travel each day compared to smaller ape groups while maintaining the same per capita food intake. It is important to note that bipedalism was developed by humans depending on their social group structure and the competition strategies which required more efficient means of interactions (Jablonski, 24). Bipedalism was inevitable.
  
The advantage of the savannah theory is that it is based on solid evidence especially that gathered from fossils and may well explain why humans adopted bipedalism as a means of locomotion. The study and dating of fossil bones, the associated fossil remains are enough to establish what environment humans survived in. Furthermore, conditions that facilitate fossilizations of the remains of dead animals are good along the sea shore and poor on the open grasslands. Up to date, there exists no evidence on the coastal plains which suggest mans existence along these areas. The only evidence that has been documented comes from the savannah hence affirming that man surely existed in the savannah.

The Aquatic Ape Theory (AAT)
This suggests that before humans emerged as apes on the savannah, it had spent some time in water. The peculiar layer of fat on the human skin is only found in water mammals but not in the other apes, man must have been aquatic in the past. The shore based environment had contributed to adoption of bipedalism by humans. Man escaped the competition in the forest to the sea shores in search for food, urchins and shell fish present in the shallow waters of the coast. Commencing his paddling in the shallow waters, man ventured into the deeper waters, rooting at the bottom with his head out of the water surface and his weight being supported by water, man learnt how to bipedal in the water.
    
Humans were far from killer apes with the role of the females far from that of passive breeders. This required both the females and males to jointly harvest the sea paddling along the shoreline gathering urchins and shellfish. The human society was not composed of alpha males or hierarchies of violence and dominion but an effort of communal gathering. In such a case humans had to develop brains for aquatic life, marine nutrients inn their dietary compositions necessary for the growth of brain for aquatic animals. The sticking in this aquatic life was made possible through the restriction that, had humans moved away from water then this change in diet would be hugely detrimental to the development of their brain. This ensured that humans remained in water and exploited the aquatic environment.
  
Humans retreated into water for the sake of food safety and food security because their reduced numbers resulting from starvation in the savannah forest. The newly acquired aquatic environment provided support for bipedalism and brain food.  Bipedalism must have been acquired by humans so as to provide the buoyant properties of water which triggered incremental evolution from quadripedalism.
  
 The advantage of this theory is that it is based on sound evidence and may greatly explain the bipedalism nature of humans.  Firstly, humans can effectively control their breathing patterns like many aquatic and semi-aquatic creatures. Furthermore, there are other anecdotal facts, our fat surplus, the ability of infants to hold their breath as well as swim from birth and the perpendicular nostrils (Isaac, 29). The face to face sex pattern is seen in dolphins all show evidence of the previous aquatic life of humans. Moreover, some of the aquatic animals such as whales are capable of going bipedal, at least temporarily such as when they emerge out of the water surface. 

This means that humans must have adopted this and enhanced it for permanent bipedalism.  Again, our hairlessness is as a result of traveling longer distances in water corresponding from the need of dissipating heat more effectively out of the water surface. The presence of sebaceous glands depicts previous aquatic life in humans. Aquatic animals possess rudimentary sebaceous glands, while they become active in humans during puberty as better scent receptors. This is evident in the seals which use these glands for waterproofing the glands are secreted by keratinized skin which is similar to the human skin. Humans are efficient swimmers possessing shapes suitable for rapid travel through water only that swimming is learnt with the new borns not capable of effectively propelling through water as well as lifting their faces for breath (Hunt, 26. The nose shape of humans is another evidence of human existence in water.  The human nose is easily comparable to that of other aquatic animals and may perform the function of preventing water entry during swimming and that the muscles around the nose are well a developed to aid in communication while in water just as in other water animals such as the goose.
  
Genera    lly,  the Aquatic Ape Theory (AAT) is well accounted for to posit the previous aquatic life of humans with humans possessing though not all the features that enable aquatic life such as surplus skin fats seen in the whales. This theory is evident-based.

Cultural anthropology, which is also known as social or sociocultural anthropology, is defined as the study of customary patterns in human behavior, thought and feelings (Haviland, Walrath and Prins, 2006). In order to understand the work of cultural anthropologists, culture should be clarified and basically understood since it is the societys shared and socially transmitted ideas, values and perceptions (Haviland, Walrath and Prins, 2006). Various aspects of culture are thus used to make sense of experience that generates the reflection in behavior (Haviland, Walrath and Prins, 2006). 

Cultural Anthropology is seen to be a significant field in social sciences due to its various contributions to understanding people from different cultures. Essentially, this method is founded on the observation of phenomena as they occur in nature (Moore, 1998) focusing primarily on the study of contemporary cultures wherever they may be found in the world (Ferraro, 2006). Particular cultures can be  compared by the patterns and processes that are distinguished through repetitive charting and cross-checking of natural events and interactions between organisms especially for human beings (Moore, 1998). In relation to this, specific theoretical approaches are applied by cultural anthropologists in order to accurately study and observe the way in which culture influences the interaction and socialization of a particular group of people. Structural functionalism, cultural functionalism, and structuralism are some of the widely used theoretical approaches which have contributed greatly to ethnographic fieldwork. Various anthropologists such as Bronislaw Malinoski, Emile Durkheim, and Claude Levi-Strauss have worked on developing and further analyzing these theoretical approaches through their application in research studies or ethnographic fieldwork.

Bronislaw Malinowski believed that the productivity of field workers depends on certain conditions, special methods, and genuine scientific aims  (Moore, 1998). His theoretical framework made posits that all facts in a social field are interrelated so that changes in one affect all the others (Moore, 1998). Like Boas, Malinowski is a strong advocate of field work and insisted on learning the local language in order to try and understand a culture from an insiders perspectives (Ferraro, 2006). He relied greatly on the perspective of functionalism which concentrated on exploring how contemporary cultures operated or functioned on the society (Ferraro, 2006) as a satisfaction for the needs of an individual (Bailey, 2009). His discussions emphasized that the needs of individuals should be served or met by culture, specifically the needs which have a biological, psychological, andor social nature (Bailey, 2009). Also, he stated that not only do all aspects of a culture have a function, but it is also related to one another (Ferraro, 2006) stressing the interrelatedness of the function of certain constituent elements in a social field (i.e. norms, customs, traditions, and institutions) in analyzing the social structure.

An example of his application of this theory is best seen in his analysis of the prevalence of magic in Trobiand Islanders as part of their core beliefs or religion (Ferraro, 2006). Although religion and magic are commonly expressed as two distinct aspects, Titiev (1960) stated that the realizations concerning the vagueness and uncertainties of this common idea regarding the said division are increasing. Thus, people are now refusing to recognize the traditional dichotomy and now prefer to treat both sets of practices as one (Titiev 1960). This functionalist tenet is no better illustrated when kula not only performs the function of distributing goods within the society but is related to many other areas of the Trobiand Culture, which includes political structure, magic, technology, kinship, social status, myth and social control (Ferraro, 2006).  Alexander Moore (1998) also stated that this specific study of Malinowski was an example of functional theory based on ethnographic evidence of high quality because his data led him to realize that the amount of magic varied in proportion to the danger and uncertainty of the activity. A direct relationship was seen between the amount of danger and the amount of magic practiced.

Thus, it can be said that the responses to magic are reflections of an individuals psychological needs to control destiny and chance. A societal practice such as magic was able to reduce an individuals anxieties about the uncertain.

On the other hand, a different viewpoint on functionalism is expressed by Emile Durkheim. His fundamental concepts revolved around the idea of how the individual is able to support society, specifically its solidarity. According to him, religion dictates to people actions, ideas, and sentiments and it also possesses its own authority. Therefore, like law and morality, it has a regulating function in society and creates social equilibrium (Hosu, 2009). He admitted to having trouble breaking free of this assumption himself until he finally did so in the process of deciding whether it made sense to apply notions of health and sickness to societies as well as to individuals (Schneider, 2006). Structural functionalism, is best understood in his explanation of the use of religion to control a society.

His approach to the topic was complex and involved several different forms of explanation and the core was the form called structural (Schneider, 2006). The application of the beliefs and practices focused on religion as a great tool in unifying a community (Lukes, 1985). The domain of religion presents a fascinating field for inquiry by social scientists, in which, like magic, religion is populated with entities (i.e. Gods, miracles and sacred objects) whose existence or spiritual qualities are not detectable by the accepted methods and instruments of science (Schneider, 2006). Specifically, a unified social interaction such as the church ensures social solidarity. Durkheim dismissed some of the easier answers to this question that had been provided and assumed that religion resulted from flawed thinking on the part of primitive people (Schneider, 2006). Yet, Durkheim doubted that religion was merely an immature phase in human intellectual development. The fact that questions regarding religion could be explained by social science made him hypothesize and focus on the his question which states, What sort of a science is it whose principle discovery is that the subject of which it treats does not exist (Scheider, 2006).

Due to this, Durkheim dismissed arguments that the core of religion was a belief in the supernatural or in divinities since some religions, forms of Buddhism, for instance, lacked them (Scheider, 2006).  He also believed that the distinction between the sacred and the profane was unique because it was seen as being absolute unlike good and bad, which might shade into one another at their boarders (Schneider, 2006). The sacred had to be kept perfectly insulated from the profane in ways that allowed the two to be defined by one another, thus having decided that sacredprofane distinction characterized all religions, Durkheim made it the centerpiece of his definition of religion as

A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is     to say, things set apart and forbidden- beliefs and practices which unite into a single     moral community called a church, all those who adhere to them(Schneider, 2006).

The theory of structuralism in cultural anthropology can be seen as similar to Durkheims view of functionalism not only because the concept of life-death is emphasized in the two approaches, but also in a sense that it structuralism also focuses on questions about bringing order and unifying the society. Although this is so, the concepts found in this theory led by Claude Levi-Strauss are centered more on the human patterns of thought and mans management of the chaos he is exposed to (Kaplan  Manners, 2009). Levi-Strauss studies, which focus on myth and thinking, emphasize that man consistently tries to give logic to chaotic experiences by providing classifications of various concepts. As a result, specific segments of societies are labeled complete with their resulting opposite. Examples of which include good-evil, right-left, and life-death.

These concepts are found in accordance to religion. Specifically, the opposing ideas good-evil and life-death can be considered as core elements in religion. This shows that the theories involving structuralism are applied in the social institutions such as religion.

These theoretical approaches are important to researchers mainly because they provide guidelines in the analysis of data. Specifically, the ideas and questions involved in these anthropological theories are able to sustain the objectives of the anthropologist while collecting and interpreting the data from field work. Research studies done by Bronislaw Malinoski, Emile Durkheim, and Claude Levi-Strauss are ideal examples of the significance of theoretical approaches in ethnographic fieldworks. All three released studies which were similar to each other due to the focus of the religion of a particular group or society. Although the focus of their studies was similar, a crucial distinction is seen in these studies in the application of also three different approaches for the analysis of the social institution which they have focused on.

Cultural anthropology, which is also known as social or sociocultural anthropology, is defined as the study of customary patterns in human behavior, thought and feelings (Haviland, Walrath and Prins, 2006). In order to understand the work of cultural anthropologists, culture should be clarified and basically understood since it is the societys shared and socially transmitted ideas, values and perceptions (Haviland, Walrath and Prins, 2006). Various aspects of culture are thus used to make sense of experience that generates the reflection in behavior (Haviland, Walrath and Prins, 2006). 

Cultural Anthropology is seen to be a significant field in social sciences due to its various contributions to understanding people from different cultures. Essentially, this method is founded on the observation of phenomena as they occur in nature (Moore, 1998) focusing primarily on the study of contemporary cultures wherever they may be found in the world (Ferraro, 2006). Particular cultures can be  compared by the patterns and processes that are distinguished through repetitive charting and cross-checking of natural events and interactions between organisms especially for human beings (Moore, 1998). In relation to this, specific theoretical approaches are applied by cultural anthropologists in order to accurately study and observe the way in which culture influences the interaction and socialization of a particular group of people. Structural functionalism, cultural functionalism, and structuralism are some of the widely used theoretical approaches which have contributed greatly to ethnographic fieldwork. Various anthropologists such as Bronislaw Malinoski, Emile Durkheim, and Claude Levi-Strauss have worked on developing and further analyzing these theoretical approaches through their application in research studies or ethnographic fieldwork.
Bronislaw Malinowski believed that the productivity of field workers depends on certain conditions, special methods, and genuine scientific aims  (Moore, 1998).

His theoretical framework made posits that all facts in a social field are interrelated so that changes in one affect all the others (Moore, 1998). Like Boas, Malinowski is a strong advocate of field work and insisted on learning the local language in order to try and understand a culture from an insiders perspectives (Ferraro, 2006). He relied greatly on the perspective of functionalism which concentrated on exploring how contemporary cultures operated or functioned on the society (Ferraro, 2006) as a satisfaction for the needs of an individual (Bailey, 2009). His discussions emphasized that the needs of individuals should be served or met by culture, specifically the needs which have a biological, psychological, andor social nature (Bailey, 2009). Also, he stated that not only do all aspects of a culture have a function, but it is also related to one another (Ferraro, 2006) stressing the interrelatedness of the function of certain constituent elements in a social field (i.e. norms, customs, traditions, and institutions) in analyzing the social structure.

An example of his application of this theory is best seen in his analysis of the prevalence of magic in Trobiand Islanders as part of their core beliefs or religion (Ferraro, 2006). Although religion and magic are commonly expressed as two distinct aspects, Titiev (1960) stated that the realizations concerning the vagueness and uncertainties of this common idea regarding the said division are increasing. Thus, people are now refusing to recognize the traditional dichotomy and now prefer to treat both sets of practices as one (Titiev 1960). This functionalist tenet is no better illustrated when kula not only performs the function of distributing goods within the society but is related to many other areas of the Trobiand Culture, which includes political structure, magic, technology, kinship, social status, myth and social control (Ferraro, 2006). 

Alexander Moore (1998) also stated that this specific study of Malinowski was an example of functional theory based on ethnographic evidence of high quality because his data led him to realize that the amount of magic varied in proportion to the danger and uncertainty of the activity. A direct relationship was seen between the amount of danger and the amount of magic practiced. Thus, it can be said that the responses to magic are reflections of an individuals psychological needs to control destiny and chance. A societal practice such as magic was able to reduce an individuals anxieties about the uncertain.
On the other hand, a different viewpoint on functionalism is expressed by Emile Durkheim.

His fundamental concepts revolved around the idea of how the individual is able to support society, specifically its solidarity. According to him, religion dictates to people actions, ideas, and sentiments and it also possesses its own authority. Therefore, like law and morality, it has a regulating function in society and creates social equilibrium (Hosu, 2009). He admitted to having trouble breaking free of this assumption himself until he finally did so in the process of deciding whether it made sense to apply notions of health and sickness to societies as well as to individuals (Schneider, 2006). Structural functionalism, is best understood in his explanation of the use of religion to control a society. His approach to the topic was complex and involved several different forms of explanation and the core was the form called structural (Schneider, 2006). The application of the beliefs and practices focused on religion as a great tool in unifying a community (Lukes, 1985).

The domain of religion presents a fascinating field for inquiry by social scientists, in which, like magic, religion is populated with entities (i.e. Gods, miracles and sacred objects) whose existence or spiritual qualities are not detectable by the accepted methods and instruments of science (Schneider, 2006). Specifically, a unified social interaction such as the church ensures social solidarity. Durkheim dismissed some of the easier answers to this question that had been provided and assumed that religion resulted from flawed thinking on the part of primitive people (Schneider, 2006). Yet, Durkheim doubted that religion was merely an immature phase in human intellectual development.

The fact that questions regarding religion could be explained by social science made him hypothesize and focus on the his question which states, What sort of a science is it whose principle discovery is that the subject of which it treats does not exist (Scheider, 2006). Due to this, Durkheim dismissed arguments that the core of religion was a belief in the supernatural or in divinities since some religions, forms of Buddhism, for instance, lacked them (Scheider, 2006).  He also believed that the distinction between the sacred and the profane was unique because it was seen as being absolute unlike good and bad, which might shade into one another at their boarders (Schneider, 2006). The sacred had to be kept perfectly insulated from the profane in ways that allowed the two to be defined by one another, thus having decided that sacredprofane distinction characterized all religions, Durkheim made it the centerpiece of his definition of religion as

A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is     to say, things set apart and forbidden- beliefs and practices which unite into a single     moral community called a church, all those who adhere to them(Schneider, 2006).

The theory of structuralism in cultural anthropology can be seen as similar to Durkheims view of functionalism not only because the concept of life-death is emphasized in the two approaches, but also in a sense that it structuralism also focuses on questions about bringing order and unifying the society. Although this is so, the concepts found in this theory led by Claude Levi-Strauss are centered more on the human patterns of thought and mans management of the chaos he is exposed to (Kaplan  Manners, 2009). Levi-Strauss studies, which focus on myth and thinking, emphasize that man consistently tries to give logic to chaotic experiences by providing classifications of various concepts. As a result, specific segments of societies are labeled complete with their resulting opposite. Examples of which include good-evil, right-left, and life-death.

These concepts are found in accordance to religion. Specifically, the opposing ideas good-evil and life-death can be considered as core elements in religion. This shows that the theories involving structuralism are applied in the social institutions such as religion.

These theoretical approaches are important to researchers mainly because they provide guidelines in the analysis of data. Specifically, the ideas and questions involved in these anthropological theories are able to sustain the objectives of the anthropologist while collecting and interpreting the data from field work. Research studies done by Bronislaw Malinoski, Emile Durkheim, and Claude Levi-Strauss are ideal examples of the significance of theoretical approaches in ethnographic fieldworks. All three released studies which were similar to each other due to the focus of the religion of a particular group or society. Although the focus of their studies was similar, a crucial distinction is seen in these studies in the application of also three different approaches for the analysis of the social institution which they have focused on

Question 1. Business Anthropologist Ann Jordan argues that anthropologist studies reveal that in the GLOBALIZATION OF THE ECONOMY, CULTURE is a strong indicator of the movement of 1) Labor, 2) movement of Capital, and 3) the success of joint ventures. Identify the key findings of three studies she reports that support her claims.
       
Culture is a strong indicator of movement or changes in labor or labor management.  All countries have different cultures and norms that their people believe and embrace.  It is innate and natural.  It is practiced in their daily activities which include their personal undertakings and work ethics.  Lets take the example of the meat-packing industry in the US.  Jobs in meatpacking plants are considered by locals as dangerous and underpaid. Migrants are the only ones who are interested with the job.  However, these migrants have different culture.  They value holidays and leave their jobs to attend such.  As a result, meatpacking companies face seasonal turnover in their labor force.
     
There are also cultural issues in management of capital when it comes to globalization.  Some people might say that there are no implications whatsoever on whose capital is invested in a business.  However, the authors argue that culture plays a role in making an investment succeed in the global market.  They pointed out that it does matter whose capital and where the capital was invested because understanding the culture and norms of the market as compared to the that of the investor will be the key to its success.
     
The success of a joint venture also relies on the culture of both parties who will bind each other to an agreement.  There are certain things that needed to be considered with regards to the cultures of both countries involve like language barrier, business practices and working relationships or even petty things like taste and preferences on office furniture.

Question 2.  The documentary film  is Wal-Mart bad for America  illustrate claims made by Durrenberger and Erem regarding  What is wrong with corporations  What arguments do the film-makers and the text authors make Why do we need to be able to think anthropologically when asking and answering questions regarding corporations ,
      
Durrenberger and Erem speculated that Wal-Mart is not contributing positively to the economy of America.  Being one of the largest discount-department stores in the country and around the world, the company opted to transfer its production offshore where labor cost and other expenses are relatively lower.  Consequently, the company can produce items at lower price with attractive mark up thereby resulting to increase in profits on the part of the company.  However, this decision has triggered decrease in employment opportunities for Americans and this resulted to increase in job seekers and an increase in supply denotes a decrease in demand for employees and also a decline in the wage.  Moreover, the company does not offer good benefits for its employees such as life and health insurance.  The company seems to be very much against labor unions that would protect the employees welfare and rights.  This does not put the company in a good light as much as they try to come up with good advertising and lavish campaigns.  It does not change the fact that their corporate decisions have hurt the economy and the people of America.  Another point there is the fact that coming offering attractive discounts for their products have assassinated the small players in the industry. Its successful corporate strategy has caused a lot of economic implications and problems.  Although people can purchase products at a lower price and save money, the smaller players are defeated and therefore are forced to cease operation in order to prevent more losses.  The authors imply that Wal-Mart has done a great deal of damage in the countrys labor force and economy.
      
We need to think anthropologically when asking and answering questions regarding corporations so that we can be open to all the ideas and test all these to come up with better understanding of the real picture. We need to see beyond the lines.
 
Question 3. What three waves of globalization defined the historical dynamics of political and economic relations between developed and developing countries  Why does Merrill singer argue that we need to understand these relationships to address the problems associated with international drug trafficking  Why does singer argue that global legal and illegal drug use contributes to the maintenance of social inequality at global levels,
      
The three dimensions or waves of globalization is community where people know almost each other and somehow all have personal or work-related affinity with each other.  It is a web of social relationships where people are treated evenly.  Globalizations first wave starts at the community where social  networking is actively practiced. 
      
The second dimension is the state where relationship tend to be formal and hierarchical.  The relationships are unilateral and professional in aspect. 
     
Lastly, the third dimension of globalization is market.  This dimension is impersonal and one-dimensional.  Relationships are transactional and are not valued at all. 
     
In globalization, the state is considered more essential than the market because the state grows while the market declines.  It was perceived that the state is not important when it comes to globalization but if a state do not exist to regulate a market, a market will not surface.  Laws governing markets like contracts, real estate, ownership and taxes should conform markets and such laws cannot be mandated without a state. 
     
We need to understand all these things about drug trafficking because globalization opens the door to all countries.  Globalization is complex market that is not easily monitored and it gives leeways to operate freely among countries.
     
Illegal drug use can be caused by inequality in global levels because the third world countries are often the playground of drug pushers from other countries and because of poverty and bad policies, these countries are mostly the venues for such illegal activities.  A lot of illegal drug-related businesses operates in poor countries.

Question 4. Durrenberger and Erem argue that there is no such thing as the middle-class in America, only an ideology of the middle-class. How do they support this position How is the reframing of the question  What are the economic problems of the American middle-class and exercise in independent reasoning and critical thinking.
      
The authors sincerely believe that the existence of a middle class in America is entirely a myth instead there are just two classes that prevails the working class and the ruling class.  Classes exist the medieval times when the rulers conquer their empires through the work of their slaves.  The rationale behind the master-slave relationship and co-existence is evident in the history of our civilization.  However, people are lead to believe that as the civilization evolves and develops, the  middle class  was derived, a state between the ruling and the working class.  It has this appealing and non-discriminatory sound that somehow separates the poor and the rich from each other.  It connotes equality. Hence, the authors, technically argues the non-existence of middle class.  The argument was supported by their theory that everything is black or white where in everything is not deemed equal  which allows people from making choices and decisions for their own good.  Lets say, if all the systems of the government is well and good, then what is the point of weighing options for improvement.  The right to choose and the logic behind good and bad are presumed to be without merits or importance at all.
      
The authors also emphasized the statistics that separates the ruling class and the working class.  The 20 richest people in America owns more than half of the wealth and the other side of the coin is the people who works for these rich people and purchase goods from these people.  Wherever the working class go or whatever they do, at the end of the day, it is the ruling class that always gains the profit whether from the formers political decisions or property acquisitions. The working classes are left with almost  no choice or even no chance to improve their economic situation. To put it simply, there are just two types of class in the United States, the rich and the poor, or in medieval times, the master and the slave.

Question 5. Durrenbergers ideal world is a democracy comprised of educated citizens who all took courses in anthropology. What does he say we should teach you that will give you more agency Identify five main contributions from cultural anthropology that you learned in the book and explain why they are useful in helping you survive and adapt in the future.
      
Anthropology plays an essential role in understanding culture and norms.  Its comparative approach provides a better understanding of the facts.  It is mainly based on observations of actual events rather than personal opinions.  Anthropology is more like a study of the truth and factual occurrences that evolve into relationships of all the aspects involved.  It gives a vivid view of how things are really are and adheres to understand people not as collective unit but as individuals.  An anthropological approach involves the process of observing patterns and connecting links to further understand the true picture. 
      
The book has provided a better understanding of the importance of anthropology in economies and global markets.  It speculates that theories should always be based on numbers and statistics that we encounter everyday.  Sometimes things are not what they seem. Since anthropology is not based on theories or mere observations, it provided a view of the American economy in a different light.  The relationships among culture, economy, market and globalization were successfully linked and connected together to form a clear appreciation of the scenario. 
      
Having said all these, the knowledge acquired from the book regarding anthropology can help in dealing with people, weighing options, understanding the true situation and coming up with the right decision.  It is an art that can aid in managing personal and work-related endeavors.  Anthropology in culture assists in better comprehension of complex situations and complicated problems that may arise in all aspects of our lives.  It regulates ones expectations, promotes free thinking and enhance receptiveness. An emphasis on differences of people, customs, culture and trade were emphasized by the author to suggest that nothing is the same and equal. Everything is unique but has similarities and criterion.

1) I did not perform well in this exercise as my answers were wrong on three questions, that is numbers 1,5 and 7. I thought that skin color determined race, that one could also determine race if they knew the gene structure of the person and that experiencing racism could not affect ones health. Otherwise I was pleased that I answered correctly as many questions as I did.

2).During this exercise at first I felt confident that I would  answer all the questions correctly. Then I was shocked that three of my answers were wrong. After the exercise I felt embarrassed about my lack of knowledge as I considered myself to be reasonably well educated. I couldnt believe that my long held assumptions were false. The exercise shows that I shouldnt be overconfident about my knowledge and that I must be humble enough to accept being corrected when I am proven wrong.

3). The point of this exercise I think was to show that not only is everyone similar on the inside but on the outside as well. To make a bad pun the differences are skin deep and the difference in skin color of different groups of people, so called races, are caused by adaptation to their geographic environment rather than by inherent DNA or genetic differences. The exercise is a real eye opener and makes you think. It shows you cant be overconfident about what you think you know.

 Race and Ethnicity (Part II)
1). In Australia and Canada I would be classified first as not aboriginal. But then in Australia I would be categorized as English and other ancestry whereas in Canada I would be white. In Brazil, Guam and the United States I would also be of the white race. In England my ethnic group would be any other white background but in Bulgaria I would be simply other ethnic group. In South Africa I would be a member of the white population group. It is amazing the variety of classifications I have for just one person.

2) This tells us that there is no consistent notion of race throughout the world. It is very confusing as I had thought race was intended to denote skin color whereas ethnic group was to describe specific  cultures within people of the same skin color. However the English census avoids the term race altogether for example describes blacks as an ethnic group. The South Africa census also avoids using the word race , instead preferring  population groups. It appears race is a politically incorrect word throughout much of the world,  possibly because of conflicts with visible minorities Perhaps the word should be abandoned altogether as it is not based on genetic differences, but rather skin color .

3).The value of using constructs race and ethnicity  to organize people even when countries differ on their classifications  is because the data obtained  is normally used only domestically within the country involved. Therefore it doesnt matter for example that Australia and the United States have different classifications, because the data collected in Australia is only used to set government policy there and the same is the case for the United States. All that matters is that the classifications are understood and agreed upon within the respective countries However if it is deemed necessary to have world wide data for population and ecology research there should be universally accepted  common terminology

Written by the famous Sapolsky , the book is about primates and is classified as a non-fiction book. As one of the finest natural history writers around, Sapolsky has authored another book that includes many crazy things that Sapolsky did in his young age involving baboons. This book not only keeps the reputation of the author as a witty writer with humor involved in most of the write-ups, but also offers more to the readers. The book flows with largely from the youth of Sapolsky who throws himself at the world facing many consequences later in his life (Rob, 2001).

The task of surviving and studying baboons for 20 years in East Africa could only be accomplished by Sapolsky who has an extreme absurd sense. The task well completed and his study completed, Sapolsky was ready to write a book on primates. The fluent writing and the humor of this biologist set him apart from other natural biologists as he recreates the scenes of baboon interactions, ultimate sad fate, a fragile civilization and human encounters as well. This includes a kidnapping, the legacy of Jane Goodall and the dealings with the local Masai. This book is an account of a rewarding but an odd life of a vicarious baboon (Hofert et al., 2002).

In this book Sapolsky has an inclination towards comedy that is very effective and can turn a scene into full of humor. However, at times, Sapolsky makes an effort to immerse the reader into an experience where the reader thinks that he is in for a good time. A person starts wishing that he was present in the scenes described in the book himself. As the book flows, in the latter part the humor declines and forces the readers to trust his stories and descriptions. Since the stories are remarkable, the reader finds himself in the position of trusting the author with the stories (Rob, 2001).

However, the adventures and the scenes recreated by Sapolsky are based on the underlying fact that the author wants to convey to the readers that testosterone plus aggression does not equal social dominance. The base of the book is that study of male stress in baboons. Sapolsky has been researching on baboons since years now which lead him to deduce that the males with the highest demonstrated testosterone are the ones who fight the most frequently over status. These are mostly the low ranking males and are more prone to stress related illnesses. However, his study has revealed that the males with lowest stress level hormones are the ones that engage in nonaggressive contact with the troop members and participate regularly in social grooming (Rob, 2001).
       
The book is closed by a person with much more knowledge about the baboons and many matters related to them. But more importantly, the readers start to miss the company of baboons and the witty comedy of Sapolsky once the book is completed. The book is a tribute to the continent that held him in thrall, despite its troubles and extremes, and it is also an account of a young boy who is on the road to maturity (Zaleski, Abbott, Gold  Rotella, 2001).